Environmental Transformation

Prior to taking this class I had relatively little Jazz knowledge. I was aware of the “big name” jazz performers such as Louis Armstrong, Billy Holiday, Benny Goodman, Miles Davis, and Duke Ellington, but that was the extent of it. This class has ignited a new thought process when I consider Jazz musicians, because I am now aware of the dialogic theory between an artist and their community, city, audience, venue, etc. My focus has shifted from the individual performer, to the Jazz community and the effect it can have in shaping a city's environment as a whole. For example, I am now aware of the Creoles and the cultural integration of New Orleans, the economic influences Jazz presented in Chicago, and the integration of the Two Harlem’s in New York (Gioia pp25, 55, 93, 135). It's important that I now understand Jazz as a dynamic and ever-changing art (based on the community, environmental factors etc), rather than my old assumption of it being a very static musical form. The social, racial, and economic dynamics present in these Jazz cities has shifted my focus to the important influence the musicians exerted on their communities and the audiences they touched, rather than solely on their individual musical talents.

I now understand this aspect of dialogic as being the idea that a “jazz piece was a dialogue between the artist and his audience, where the artist speaks to the audiences needs and desires, while the audience is in turn affected in these cultural changes these new sounds create” (Stewart Lecture). Prior to this class I had assumed that these Jazz musicians were simply one of a kind musical genius’s who personally created the various jazz forms (Swing, Bebop, Big Band etc.). Yet in reality, I am now able to look at these creations on a much larger scale, as being instead accredited to the interactions and environments between these special musicians and their communities.

An example of this can be seen when examining the community of San Juan Hill where Thelonious Monk was raised. Despite Monk’s incredible musical talents, his tight knit community, a close sense of extended family, and a diverse childhood atmosphere, was what really fostered and laid the foundation for his success and musical style (Kelley, pp. 25-40). Had Monk not experienced such diversity growing up, his music would therefore not have been impacted in the way it was (for example aspects of musical dissonance being reflections of diversification). Monk’s musical creativity and innovation was not simply due to the fact he was a musical “genius," but instead placed an emphasis on the context of his surroundings. 

Another example of this dialogic, and context based focused can be seen in the Savoy Ballroom in Harlem. In this integrated space, “there was something in the air there, a demand to be given something on the part of the people that shapes matters, so that when a group needs to get really together and tightened up, this is where it books in” (Stowe, 20).  Even in a space such as the Savoy dance room, the focus was on the environment and racial interactions, rather than on the specific performers on stage.

In conclusion, I really did not have much of a jazz knowledge at all prior to taking this class, aside from the basic recognition of key figures (Armstrong, Billy Holiday etc.). Through taking this course, I am aware of the progression of Jazz through the various cities, as well as being able to recognize that in fact jazz was an interaction between the artists and their community, and both of these aspects are what have shaped jazz throughout the course of its history. I have a better understanding of Jazz music's influence in shaping the ideas and attitudes towards Black Americans in America, and allowing the rest of the nation through Jazz music to respect the accomplishments of the musicians from the Jazz Era.

The Importance of Community

In the above quotation, Thelonious Monk is alluding to the diversity within the tight knit San Juan Hill New York community he was raised in. “Because every block is a different town…next block and you in another country” (Kelley, 19). San Juan Hill contained a microcosm of diverse cultures, languages, and religions, and because of this, Monk is often referred to as a “son of diversity." This diversity is sustained in both Monk’s personal identity (hats, berets, flamboyant ties), and in his avant-garde, unique and offbeat musical style. Musically, Monk's Latin tinge style derived from a diverse musical training background that included formal training from a Jewish Austrian teacher (Kelley, 29).  The diversity that existed within the San Juan Hill community is reflected in Monk’s musical dissonance, as he believed that disharmony was just as important as harmony itself.  Notion of heterodoxy and angular complexity expressed through Monk’s pieces reflect the diverse and unorthodox lifestyle of San Juan Hill. The interracial environment, as well as the fighting racism that existed in this area of New York was reflected in the ever present "dissonance and ambiguous chord structure" synonymous with Monk's music (Gioia, 202).

Territorial notions were also present in San Juan Hill, as various ethnic groups “owned” certain blocks of town. For example, a tight-knit black community by the name of “Black Bohemia (Kelley, 19), where doors were always open, and every house could be heard with some kind of banjo, piano, guitar or mandolin instrument (Kelley, 20). This tight-knit Bohemian community acted as an extended family willing to sacrifice everything for Monk to pursue his creative career and provided him with a support system that allowed him to flourish. For example, Monk learned various religious hymns at the local church, and also interacted with other young boy bands at a local boy’s club (Kelley, 29). He was a victim of racism from the New York cops, lost his cabaret card, but "refused to respond by becoming more race conscious," (Stewart), instead choosing to use his music to create a community of tolerant individuals and a musical style characterized by dissonant chord structures, complex rhythms, and off-balance tempos. Monk became viewed as the "patron saint for those who saw jazz as an underground movement resisting assimilation" (Gioia, 247) and it reflected the black Americans will to assert themselves as 'co-equals' of their peers during a period in history when black Americans were at a critical juncture in history (just prior to Civil Rights movement).

Monk’s image evolved into one of a “family man” as he remained married and became a father. Consequently, Monk’s musical aspirations revolved around sustaining a living for his family, which differed from Jazz musicians such as Charlie Parker (emotionally needy) or Miles Davis (abusive relationships). Likewise, Monk’s family and community sustained him, and supported him through his bipolar and physiological disorders.

Along with this diversity brought competition as “you had to fight each other” (Kelley, 19), and if you could survive this competition, (as Monk did), you were better because of it. This survival of the fittest model Monk adopted, helps to explain his view towards racial politics, as he looked further under the surface than just the issue of “black vs. white.” Instead, he viewed everyone as being in constant competition even within the white community itself. For example, he viewed the hatred between the Irish and Italian Americans just as he viewed the conflict between blacks and whites.  Monk chose to view the black and white separation as merely an obstacle.  He states, “there’s no reason I should go through that black power shit now” (Kelley, 19).  He saw physical racial resistance as unproductive and instead makes an effort to transcend racial politics through expressing resistance in his dissonant composition creations. However, despite Monk’s efforts, the racism towards blacks was sometimes too tough of a pill for even him to swallow. Monk’s buildup of agitation and anguish regarding racism were, in fact, released, as was the case in the incident in Delaware in 1958. Monk was not charged with any particular crime, no search warrant was presented, yet he was arrested, detained, and sent for questioning (although marijuana and narcotics were later found in car trunk). Monk resisted, refused to cooperate, and would not answer questioning, and was later beaten and then charged with assault and battery of an officer (Kelley, 254). Despite Monk’s attempts to transcend racial segregation, there were a few instances such as this one where a combination of his bipolar personality, as well as a buildup of frustration led to an outburst. But, Thelonious Monk did succeed in adopting, and being adopted "by a young generation of Blacks and Whites who were rebelling against the strictures of American society," (Stewart).

The Recognition of Race - Post #3

         It wasn’t until the 1930’s that Jazz music became a more socially acceptable form of entertainment, especially to the white community. The 1930’s swing music “took on a more explicit set of ideological meanings and evoked more complex responses” (Stowe 53) than Jazz had done in previous generations.

As previously identified, Jazz was concentrated in primarily black impoverished communities, and frowned upon by both whites, and upper-brow black communities. Examples of this include, the origination of Jazz in the red light district of storyville, the association of jazz with slums and gangsters in Chicago, and the way in which Harlem jazz was never able to quite measure up to the African American renaissance art of it’s time. As stated in “Swing Changes," Jazz was perceived as uncouth and primitive; a direct threat to moral propriety, sexual decency, and American womanhood”

(53).

Essentially, two major performances slowly began shifting the negative perceptions away from jazz music. These include the great jazz duo of the century between Goodman and Webb at “The Savoy” (1936), followed by the performance of Goodman at Carnegie Hall (1938). These events “made jazz legit," and created a type of pressure for racial integration, at a time when segregation was still very present. Race was now at the forefront, and as professor Stewart stated, jazz had begun to gain “high culture respect."

The Savoy jazz duo (victory awarded to Webb) also represented the idea of a new form of racial competition, and a new found economic game. It wasn’t until the 1930’s that whites saw black jazz band competition as being “head to head” legitimate competition. This identification of competition always brings out racial consciousness among its players, with each side now representing an entire racial group rather than simply an individual’s artistic talent level (Gioia 140-145). Although groups such as the Dixieland Jazz Band and the Austin High school gang emerged in the 1920’s, black musicians at this time were not put on record and were not yet recognized as being on the same professional competitive level as their white counterparts. Race was explicitly visible and noticeable in the 1930’s due in part to this “new found” competitive landscape.

Now that black’s music was gaining respect as a higher art form, this led to the emergence of white fans and consumers. Swing music drew diverse populations into similar spaces, and in essence began breaking down physical segregation, thereby creating a type of cyberspace integration (Professor Stewart). Jazz musicians now had to market too much broader, larger and more diverse audiences in both live performances and radio mediums. Hence, swing became a platform for “social misgenation," which refers to interracial marriage and sex. However, negative racial connotations arose, as it instilled in white men a fear that their white women would be “consuming the music AND consuming the bodies that were playing it”  (Stewart). Race issues became more prominent in social settings, and were both explicitly talked and written about due to fears revolving around social miscegenation.

         

In addition, the emergence of the white jazz critic also influenced race issues in jazz music of the '30's. The relationship between the white critic and the black musician created racial tension, since the critic was not “embedded in the same reality-the differing aspirations of musicians and the pressures of the music industry” (Stewart lecture). A perfect illustration of this complex relationship can be seen through John Hammond’s critique of Duke Ellington. Hammond “had positioned himself as an arbiter of African American musical authenticity”(Stowe 52), as racial hierarchies were once again reiterated in the lives of black musicians. This is repeatedly displayed through the success Duke Ellington. Aside from talent, Duke’s success was attributed to his exposure to white consumers, for example making appearances at the whites only 'Cotton Club'. Duke was aware that if his music was appealing to the white consumers, this would lead to commercial success, since they were the puppeteers guiding the industry.

         

Hammond then critiques Dukes complex situation as he states that Duke, “disguised a willingness to tolerate racial indignities for the sake of commercial success”, and that as an activist Duke had refused to respond to the “plight of his people." (Swing ppt). With little ground to stand on, white critics were able to “make or break” careers based on their subjective and detached critiques. Not always negative, Hammond did have beliefs that “blacks had an innate superiority (Stowe 61), as he claimed to have “discovered” several important black jazz musicians such as Fletcher Henderson, Count Basie and Billy Holiday (Stowe 52-60). Nonetheless, the relationship of this overarching white “puppeteer” John Hammond, controlled every movement of artists like Ellington, make it apparent that the white critique causes yet another source of racial tension.

In conclusion, the 1930’s brought about not only an era of swing, but also an era that began explicitly recognizing and discussing the discourse of race. This was brought on by the recognition of jazz as a “higher art," a new aspect of economic and cultural competition, a fear of social miscegenation, the emergence of the white consumer, and the relationship between the white critic and the black artist.

The Fusion of Two Harlems

New York City was the most influential contributor to Jazz in the 1920s, as it created an environment where various peoples, cultures, races, and socioeconomic backgrounds could, “mix and react, creating the laboratory of a great race-welding” (Locke, 630). New York was the most heterogeneous northern city in the country, as “each group had come with it’s own separate motives and for it’s own special ends, but their greatest experience has been the finding of one another” (Locke, 630). The migration of African Americans from the south gave rise to a new Black identity, as music acted as an agent of change and expression for African Americans. This fusion of two different socioeconomic communities in New York is what set it apart from cities like Chicago. New York jazz music formed a racial identity and created an attitude of self-determination for African Americans.  (Locke).

These “Two Harlem’s” describe the African American cultural renaissance movement, and the lower class “rent party” social environment. Unlike Chicago, where black Jazz music was concentrated only in certain areas such as the south side, or New Orleans (storyville, red light district), Harlem created a sense of widespread community and social interaction, as seen in rent parties and social events, across all areas of the city. (Gioia, 93). It was, “neither a slum, ghetto, resort or colony, though it was in part all of them” (Locke, 630).   Where environments such as Chicago Jazz were concentrated only in black slums, Harlem created a forced syncretism of two diverse black communities, which evolved into a unique form of “New York Jazz.” The term “forced syncretism is important to note, as jazz music was highly ostracized in the upper brow black community, as it was associated with southern black slavery roots, racy dance clubs, and seen as a less educated and/or less sophisticated art form (as compared to European traditional art/literature). (Gioia, 123). In time, whites began to attend whites only “Cotton Club” located in Harlem, where they too began to fall under this “Jazz fever”, and therefore turned black jazz into a commercialized success.  (Gioia, 123).

New York style Jazz had the unique element of the stride piano, which “The Best of Jazz describes as an “oompah left hand, and by an arabesque of right-hand chords and arpeggios, fashioned in counter rhythms.” Stride piano was a metaphor for the innovative cultural melting pot of the two Harlem’s. It integrated both black audiences, and in that, created something totally unique and innovative.  As Gioia mentions, stride piano, “bridged the gulf between highbrow and lowbrow” (96). The Harlem Stride Style helped to bridge this gap between the poor blacks and the socially elite. The Stride Era consisted of many jazz fathers, such as Fats Waller, James P. Johnson, Art Tail, and Willie “the lion” Smith, just to name a few. (Gioia).

In particular James P. Johnson, "the father of stride piano," best represents the New York Style Jazz as a whole. Johnson embodies Bakhtins “third party” dialogic theory of imagination to Jazz, more so than any other New York jazz father. While Johnson improvised the art of jazz through his stride playing, in doing so he also improvised the New York community, by responding to what his audiences wanted, therefore creating this new and unique “community of NY sound”. (Stewart lecture). He embodied the idea that a jazz piece was a dialogue between the artist and his audience, where the artists speaks to the audiences desires, while the audience in return is affected in the cultural changes these new sounds create. This element of call and response is seen in James’s pieces such as “Carolina Shout” and the Charleston (“The Best of Jazz”).

New York was not only innovative in the 1920’s but it went on to be a place of innovation of “big bands”, which consisted of both a bigger contrast between soloist and ensemble, as well as a faster paced, and more unison based rhythmic framework. New York became the basis of the new “swing era”, where men such as Duke Ellington and Fletcher Henderson who both in their own individual ways, became the pioneers of swing innovation, which would end up being extremely popular in the 1930’s. (“The Best of Jazz, Henderson). The opportunity for black Jazz musicians to inject their influence into NYC society, to cross cultural lines, and to make a living as a musician, certainly made this city the most important city for Jazz in the 1920's, and also carrying on to the 1930’s. 

Blog Post #1- "New Orleans, The Early Home of Jazz"

The city of New Orleans was often times referred to as the “New York” of the South, due to it’s trading centers, diversity, and an associated cosmopolitan energy. Gioia does an exemplary job of identifying components of this contemporary city, which created the perfect environment for a new jazzy American sound to evolve.  He describes New Orleans as a flourishing economic power, as it was a center for trade routes and a major hub of commerce for various items such as cotton, tobacco, grain, and sugar. In fact, the term “Tip of the South” was coined to describe New Orleans and its' economic prosperity was a major contributing factor in creating a successful environment for a special kind of jazz music to take shape. 

New Orleans, uniqueness is also seen in its creation of “Congo Squares," where Africans were able to sing and dance their native music. Also present were brass bands, which played at various social events such as Saturday night fish fries, and Wednesday night lawn parties. This Congo square environment as well as brass bands being incorporated into social life, provides a fertile ground for African music and creative improvisation, rather than suppressing these African elements like many Christian and protestant areas did during that time. This fertile music ground lead to a cultural blending of music styles, allowing for the innovation of the new music style jazz. Another factor, which set New Orleans apart from other US cities, was that it consisted of many diverse peoples, such as the French (who brought catholic influence), creoles of color (light skinned blacks) West Africans, and immigrants from across the globe. Gioia refers to this as a “cultural gumbo," a melting pot of different peoples, cultures, and types of music, all brought to this one city at this one particular time. Cultural blending is seen when creoles of color were forced to assimilate back into African culture, resulting in their traditional music training fusing with African “blues” and ragtime music, creating a “jazzy” sound. Gioia states, “this ragging of more traditional compositions, and this blurring of musical genres, was central to the creation of jazz music” (Gioia, 33).

Gioia noted that Jazz in New Orleans has many sources, such as Buddy Bolden, “the elusive father of Jazz," who is cited by many as the first jazz musician. Jelly Roll Morton, is mentioned as “the world’s greatest hot tune writer”, an extremely talent composer who many claim invented jazz. Others include the Original Dixie Land Jazz band, King Oliver a cornetist and band leader, and of course the spectacularly talented Louis Armstrong on the trumpet.

In analyzing the various factors Gioia presents, I believe that Creoles of color are what really allowed Jazz to emerge in New Orleans. Although diversity was present in New Orleans, it was still going through a time of segregation and oppression, as was the rest of America. These creoles of color were the bridge between the black and white communities since essentially they belonged to both cultures. This “double consciousness," Creoles experienced, is, what essentially transformed European music, blending blues and ragtime components into a beautifully fused and innovative American form which we call Jazz. Without these Creoles of color, these music genres would remain distinct categories, and would never have this syncretism of different musical forms, which is at the core of all Jazz music. The Creoles of color population served as a midway point between two very distinct cultures and musical sounds, and allowed them to come together and fuse into a distinct New Orleans style Jazz. 

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